How to Understand the Big Bang

Introduction

An unimaginably long time ago—perhaps as few as 13 billion years, perhaps as many as 20—our universe sprang into existence in an incredibly hot and dense fireball. This “Big Bang,” as physicists call it, is an easy concept to intuitively grasp, but a difficult one to really understand. The following points will give you a firmer grounding in this cosmological theory.

Steps

1 Step One

Abandon your preconceived notions of time and space. It’s a common error to picture the Big Bang happening in a preexisting space, like a bomb going off in a big room. But the Big Bang actually created space, as well as all the matter and energy in the universe. This makes the Big Bang (technically) impossible to picture, though it can’t hurt to try.

2 Step Two

Picture space expanding in all directions. Another naïve belief about the Big Bang is that it implies that the universe has a “center” from which everything expands, as in an ordinary explosion. However, because the Big Bang created space as well as matter, every galaxy in the universe today is speeding away from most every other galaxy, so the universe has no geographic center (except in a hard-to-visualize fourth-dimensional sense).

3 Step Three

The Big Bang didn’t originate from nothing. Even though matter and energy didn’t exist before the Big Bang (whatever “before” means in this context), the rules of quantum physics and general relativity presumably did exist, thus allowing the universe to spring into being. In short, if there were no preexisting laws of physics, none of us would be here!

4 Step Four

Don’t be too concerned about the timing. Measuring the light of distant galaxies (and thus calculating how fast they’re rushing away from our own galaxy) is a delicate task. For this reason, the precise timing of the Big Bang (within a half-billion years or so) tends to fluctuate by a few billion years at any given time. This doesn’t mean there’s something intrinsically wrong with the theory; it just means that the measurements haven’t quite caught up to the mathematics.

5 Step Five

Understand that the Big Bang isn’t the end of the story. Today, very few physicists believe in an unadorned Big Bang. A period of “inflation” is usually thrown in (a split-second after the initial explosion) that multiplies the volume of space by an exponential amount. Despite these corrections to the original theory, though, all the evidence still points to the singular origin of our universe in a Big Bang-like event.

How to Research Facts About Mars

Introduction

Mars is the planet closest to Earth. This little planet has so much to offer to students not only of science, but also of history and mythology, thanks to Greek and Roman legend.

Things You'll Need

• Internet access
• Astronomy books
• Mythology books
• Biology books
• Geology books
• Chemistry books

Steps

1 Step One

Search science and astronomy Web sites and books to learn about the best-known aspect of Mars--the popular belief that it is the planet most likely to harbor life besides Earth. Make sure to look for facts about Mars's atmosphere, surface temperature, mass and orbit.

2 Step Two

Read up on mythology and ancient astronomy. Look for information about the planet's place in Roman mythology as the god of war, probably due to its red color, and in Greek mythology as Ares. Also, make sure to look for facts about Greek astronomy.

3 Step Three

Look for information about how Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life before space exploration. Astronomers thought they saw straight lines crisscrossing its surface, leading to the popular belief that irrigation canals on the planet had been constructed by intelligent beings. We now know these features are simply natural landforms caused by ancient lava or water flows.

4 Step Four

Learn that Mars is easily visible with the unaided eye when it is in the night sky, and appears as a small red disk through telescopes. Features on its surface, especially the white ice caps, are best viewed every two years when it is closest to Earth.

5 Step Five

Explore how the canyons and dried-up riverbeds on Mars suggest that water once flowed there in abundance, leaving open the question of Mars sustaining life at some time in the past. Be sure to also study how Mars currently prevents the formation of living organisms.

6 Step Six

Look at the first closeup pictures of Mars taken by Mariner 4 in July 1965 and those of Viking 1 and 2 from the surface of Mars in July and September 1976. Learn how the three biology experiments aboard the landers provided no clear evidence of the presence of living microorganisms in the soil near the landing sites.

7 Step Seven

Learn about the geological data and many pictures sent by Mars Pathfinder in 1997 and the Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity in 2004.

How to View the Lyrid Meteor Showers

Introduction

Meteor activity diminishes from January to April, but mid-April brings the Lyrid Meteors, first observed in China in 700 BCE. Stargazers can expect to see one or two shooting stars every few minutes.

Things You'll Need

• Film
• Binoculars
• Blankets
• SLR Camera
• Camera Accessories
• Telescopes
• Sky And Telescope Subscriptions
• Lawn Chairs
• Telescope Tripods
• Telescope Cleaning Kits
• Telescope Camera Adapters
• Telescope T-rings For Camera
• Telescope Dew Caps
• Telescope Light-pollution Filters
• Video Cameras

Steps

1 Step One

Mark your calendar for the Lyrid meteor shower that occurs in mid to late April, peaking around the 21st or 22nd.

2 Step Two

Watch for Lyrid meteors late at night. The best viewing times are after midnight, and the showers peak between 3 AM and dawn.

3 Step Three

Dress warmly.

4 Step Four

Use a patio chaise lounge and a thick blanket so you can recline while watching.

5 Step Five

Set aside your binoculars or telescope with their narrow field of view. They're great for observing the night sky, but they're counterproductive when watching meteor showers.

6 Step Six

Look for the constellation Lyra. The Lyrid meteor shower occurs when Lyra is visible above the horizon.

7 Step Seven

Look for Lyra about 50 degrees above the horizon some two hours after midnight. It is a four-star constellation near Vega, the brightest star in that part of the sky.

8 Step Eight

Expect all meteors to appear to emanate from a point near Lyra because of an optical illusion called a radiant point.

Tips & Warnings

• Vega, the constellation Lyra, and the radiant point of the Lyrid meteor shower are in a one o'clock position from the Northern Cross (Cygnus) constellation.
• The International Meteor Organization predicts the Lyrid peak in 2000 will be from April 21st, 2200 hours Universal Time to April 22nd, 0500 hours Universal Time.
• The International Meteor Organization says the Lyrid display will "suffer from bright waning gibbous moonlight this year."
• There is also a Lyrid peak on the 15th of June, but the light of a full moon will diminish sightings.

How to Make a Simple Telescope

Introduction

Create your very own, totally manual Gallilean telescope!

Things You'll Need

• Cardboard Tubes
• Glue Guns
• Convex And Concave Telescope Lenses

Steps

1 Step One

Acquire a pair of lenses - a large convex lens and a small concave one. (Convex lenses are thicker in the center than at the edge; concave ones are thinner in the center.)

2 Step Two

Find two cardboard tubes that will allow one to slide inside the other.

3 Step Three

Figure out how far apart the lenses should be by looking through the smaller lens while holding the larger one out in front of you. When you can focus on an object in the distance, measure how far it is between the two lenses.

4 Step Four

Double that measurement. The length of the two tubes should be about this long.

5 Step Five

Fasten the larger lens on one end of the wider tube. Hot glue is good for this.

6 Step Six

Mount the smaller lens at the opening of the smaller tube. This is the eyepiece.

7 Step Seven

Build a gasket from cardboard or Styrofoam if the tube opening is larger than the lens.

8 Step Eight

Make sure the lenses line up with each other. The centers should be in the centers of the tubes and the lenses should be parallel with each other.

Tips & Warnings

• Magnifying glasses are convex lenses.
• The best type of lenses are a low-power convex lens and a higher-powered concave one.
• Ask at an optical shop for discarded lenses.
• If you can't see anything or only pick up part of an object when looking through the telescope, check the lens alignment.
• Don't look at the sun through these lenses.

How to Locate a Deep Sky Object

Introduction

A deep sky object is a compact field of stars, gas or another galaxy. Astronomers did not know what they were when telescopes were first turned to the heavens. Photography and other imaging tools have helped us learn more about these interesting sights in the sky.

Using the Naked Eye and Binoculars

Things You'll Need

• Insect Repellents
• Warm Clothes
• Telescopes
• Sky And Telescope Subscriptions
• Telescope Eyepieces
• Star Charts
• Lawn Chairs
• Telescope Flashlights

Steps

1 Step One

Go to a place that is well away from city lights (over 60 miles away is best) and that has no direct lights nearby. You can see some of the deep sky objects with your naked eye if you are in a dark enough place.

2 Step Two

Allow 15 minutes or more after stepping out of a lit area for your eyes to adapt.

3 Step Three

Look for the Milky Way galaxy during the evening hours. It will extend across the sky through the constellations of Cygnus and Sagittarius during the summer months and through Auriga and above Orion in the winter months.

4 Step Four

Use a star chart to locate some of the bright constellations listed below. You should be able to see some of these objects using the naked eye and a set of binoculars.

5 Step Five

Find Orion in winter. Under the belt of Orion (three stars near the middle) is the sword. The fuzzy bright area of the sword is the M42 Orion Nebula. The Pleiades (Seven Sisters) are an open cluster, as is the cluster of stars near the head of Taurus the Bull.

6 Step Six

Find Hercules in spring. Under the eastern shoulder is M13. It will appear as a fuzzy star. This is a globular cluster of over a million stars.

7 Step Seven

Locate Sagittarius in summer. Above the teapot shape of this constellation are two emission nebulae numbered M8 and M20.

8 Step Eight

Locate Andromeda near Pegasus in the autumn. The fuzzy area near the center of Andromeda is the famed M31 Galaxy.

Tips & Warnings

• These brighter objects are located on maps of the sky as found in publications such as "Sky and Telescope" and "Astronomy." Other charts such as "Norton's Star Atlas" will also show these objects relative to the brighter stars.

Using a Telescope

Steps

1 Step One

Use your binoculars or finder scope to locate the object before using your telescope. Again, the darker the observing location, the better.

2 Step Two

Start by locating, near the deep sky object, a star that can be seen in the finder telescope.

3 Step Three

Use a detailed chart of the stars and move from the brighter star to the dimmer stars matching the patterns in the charts until you reach the area of the deep sky object.

4 Step Four

Look around the edge of the eyepiece but pay attention to what is seen by the corner of your eye. Sometimes you will see the object out of the corner of your eye only, and when you try to focus directly on it, you cannot see it. This is called averted vision. The light receptors toward the outside of your normal vision field are better at picking up dim objects.

5 Step Five

Look for the target deep sky object with minimal magnification. The largest diameter eyepiece will produce the lowest magnification. If you have a 1-inch and a 1/2-inch eyepiece, use the 1-inch one to locate the object.

6 Step Six

Start with the brightest deep sky objects first. Deep sky objects often appear as fuzzy stars or diffuse areas. It is easy to glance past them until your eye becomes trained on what to spot.

7 Step Seven

Try higher magnification for some objects after finding them. Most planetary nebulae are best seen with high magnification. Larger objects such as galaxies and clusters are often best seen with lower magnification eyepieces.

8 Step Eight

Don't expect the object to appear as it does in photographs. Deep sky objects are diffuse and dim to the eye. There will be no color visible except in the very largest of telescopes. You won't see deep red or bright blue as many photographs show.

Tips & Warnings

• Light-polluted sky conditions will result in the deep sky object being lost against the background light. It will be washed out, and you will not be able to see it very well or not at all.

Overall Tips & Warnings

• Obtain a good star chart or atlas that lists bright stars and deep sky objects.
• The larger the telescope, the better - an 8-inch or larger telescope is recommended.
• Use a red-covered or red-lit flashlight for reading the star chart.

How to View the Perseid Meteor Showers

Introduction

If, around August 12th, you go outside between midnight and dawn and look up for a minute or so, you'll most likely spot a meteor streaking through the sky. The August Perseid meteors were the first that astronomers associated with a particular comet. In the mid 1860s, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli observed that Perseids followed the appearance of the Swift-Tuttle Comet.

Things You'll Need

• Film
• Cameras
• Binoculars
• Sleeping Bags
• Digital Cameras
• Camera Accessories
• Camera Tripod
• Telescopes
• Sky And Telescope Subscriptions
• Telescope Camera Adapters
• Red-lens Flashlights With A Red-tinted Lens
• Patio Chairs

Steps

1 Step One

Watch for Perseid meteors in the night skies from July 23rd to August 22nd.

2 Step Two

Get away from artificial light if possible.

3 Step Three

Dress appropriately for nighttime viewing. As a summer event, Perseids may be one of the few meteor showers you can observe in shirtsleeves.

4 Step Four

Look toward constellation Perseus for the radiant point of Perseid meteors. They'll seem to come from that area, which is about halfway above the horizon in the northeast quadrant of the sky.

5 Step Five

Begin your search for Perseids after 10 p.m. (although the best viewing comes from midnight until dawn).

6 Step Six

Recline with your feet facing due south and look straight up. Perseids should appear to come from over your left shoulder.

Tips & Warnings

• Meteors flame through the Earth's atmosphere when our planet passes through the tail of a comet. Miniscule particles, some like grains of sand, plunge into our atmosphere at fantastic speeds and vaporize, creating streaks of light as they burn.
• A flashlight with a red-tinted lens cover allows you to move around in the dark without diminishing your night vision.
• According to Gary W. Kronk, author of "Cometography," the Perseid meteor shower is "the most famous of all meteor showers. It never fails to provide an impressive display and, due to its summertime appearance, it tends to provide the majority of meteors seen by non-astronomy enthusiasts."
• Swift-Tuttle last passed close to the Earth in 1992, and as many as 500 Perseid meteors per hour were seen in parts of Europe. Activity at that level will not be observed again until 2126, when the comet again swings through our solar system.
• Looking directly at the radiant point causes meteors to appear faint and slow-moving.

How to Stargaze (for beginners!)

Introduction

Finding your way through the nightsky is easy, if you know what you're looking for.

Things You'll Need

• Star charts are optional. These can be found in your local science store, and can cost you as little as a few dollars.

Steps

1 Step One

This exercise is designed for the fall months. Once you get outside, give your eyes several minutes to adjust to the darkness. Astronomers often rely on extra vitamin A (think carrots!)- it helps improve your night vision. Try not to use artificial lights outside if you can help it. This will also help preserve your night vision.

2 Step Two

This picture shows an exaggerated (brighter) version of what you are looking for.

One of the easiest objects to find is the Big Dipper. It is always found in the northern sky. A compass is a great way to try to find it for the first few times, but with practice, you'll know just where to look. In fall, it is between north, and northwest. Start by looking for three bright stars just above the horizon that form a wide triangle pointing up(on the left in the picture). These three represent the tail.

3 Step Three

Once you have found the three stars in the tail, look over slightly to the right and find the square that makes up the "pan" of the dipper. You should be seeing at LEAST six or seven stars, depending on how bright city lights are where you live.

4 Step Four

Once you have found the pan of the Big Dipper, look at the two stars on the end of the dipper on the right side. They should be the two vertical stars on the end of the dipper. Starting with the one closest to the horizon (the bottom right in the picture), draw a line with your finger up and to the right to hit the next star(the upper right in the picture). Continue until you hit another star about 2/3 of the way up the sky.

5 Step Five

Congratulations! You have found Polaris. This star is also known as the North Star, and this method can help you find north any time of the year.